Environment & Ecosystem (Unit 1)

Environment & Ecosystem

Part 1: Ecosystems and how they work

(Topics Covered: Types of Eco-Systems: Geo-sphere, Biosphere and Hydrosphere; Major issues of Biodiversity, Conservation of Bio-Diversity)

Ecology 

Ecology is the scientific study of the distributions, abundance and relations of organisms and their interactions with the environment. Ecology includes the study of plant and animal populations, plant and animal communities and ecosystems. Ecosystems describe the web or network of relations among organisms at different scales of organization.

Concept of an Ecosystem

An Ecosystem is a complex set of relationship among the living resources, habitat and residents of that area. It includes plants, trees, animals, birds, insects, water, soil and people. Ecosystems vary greatly in size and the elements that make them up, but each is a functioning unit of nature. Everything that lives in an ecosystem is dependent on other species and element that are a part of that ecological community. If one part of an ecosystem is damaged or disappears; it has a subsequent impact on the other elements of the system.

In other words, an Ecosystem is a place where nature has created a unique mixture of air, water, soil and a variety of living organisms to interact and support each other. The living and non-living components interact with each other in such a manner that it results in the flow of energy between them.

An ecosystem involves exchange of energy, gases, water and minerals amongst the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. One of the processes involves a cycle of exchange of materials between living things and the environment. The plants synthesis complex organic materials from the raw materials. The organic matter ultimately releases the raw material which is returned to the environment. This mechanism is called cycling of materials. The other basic requirement of an ecosystem is the constant input of energy. The ultimate source of energy is the sun whose solar energy is captured by green plants. Other organisms derive their nutrition and energy from the plants. The energy taken by these organisms is passed on to other organisms.

Structure of an Ecosystem

An ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology, as it includes both organisms and their abiotic environment. No organism can exist without the environment. Ecosystem represents the highest level of ecological integration which is energy based. A pond, a lake, a coral reef, part of any field and a laboratory culture can be some of the examples of ecosystems. Thus an ecosystem is defined as a specific unit of all the organisms occupying a given area which interacts with the physical environment producing distinct tropic structure, biotic diversity and material cycling.

There are two basic processes in an ecosystem. One of the processes involves a cycle of exchange of materials between living things and the environment. The plants’ photosynthesis which is complex organic mechanism .The organic matter ultimately releases the raw material which is returned to the environment. This mechanism is called cycling of materials. The other basic requirement of an ecosystem is the constant input of energy. The ultimate source of energy is the sun whose solar energy is captured by green plants. Other organisms derive their nutrition and energy from the plants. The energy taken by these organisms is passed on to other organisms.

In this way energy is transferred from one organism to other. This is called flow of energy. The main aspect of an Ecosystem is its structure and function.

Structure involves

·  Composition of biological community including species, numbers, biomass, life history and distribution in space, etc.

·       Quantity and distribution of non-living materials, such as nutrients, water, etc.

·       Range or gradient of conditions of existence, such as temperature, light, etc.

1.      The rate of biological energy flow; the rate of production and respiration of the community.

2.      Rate of material or nutrient cycle.

3.   Biological or ecological regulation including both regulations of organisms by environment and vice-versa.

4.      Stability of ecology.

Difference-Between-Ecology-Environment-Ecosystem

Key difference: Environment is the surrounding, which changes accordingly, while ecosystem involves the interaction between the environment and the organisms living in it. ... Ecosystem is the community, where the living-organism lives in an area and interacts with the other elements of the environment.

Producers, consumers and decomposers

Producers - Organisms, such as plants, that produce their own food are called autotrophs. The autotrophs, as mentioned before, convert inorganic compounds into organic compounds. They are called producers because all of the species of the ecosystem depend on them.

Consumers- All the organisms that cannot make their own food (and need producers) are called heterotrophs. In an ecosystem heterotrophs are called consumers because they depend on others. They obtain food by eating other organisms. There are different levels of consumers. Those that feed directly from producers, i.e. organisms that eat plant or plant products are called primary consumers. In the figure above the grasshopper is a primary consumer.

Organisms that feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers. Those who feed on secondary consumers are tertiary consumers. In the figure above the snake acts as a secondary consumer and the hawk as a tertiary consumer. Some organisms, like the squirrel are at different levels. When the squirrel eats acorns or fruits (which are plant product), it is a primary consumer; however, when it eats insects or nestling birds, is it is a tertiary consumer.

Decomposers - When a plant or animal dies, it leaves behind nutrients and energy in the organic material that comprised its body. Scavengers and detritivores can feed on the carcasses, but they will inevitably leave behind a considerable amount of unused energy and nutrients. Decomposers complete decomposition by breaking down this remaining organic matter. Decomposers eventually convert all organic matter into carbon dioxide (which they respire) and nutrients. This releases raw nutrients (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and magnesium) in a form usable to plants and algae, which incorporate the chemicals into their own cells. This process resupplies nutrients to the ecosystem, in turn allowing for greater primary production.

 Food chains, Food webs and Ecological pyramids

 Food Chain

·         In an ecosystem all the living organisms are linked in a systematic chain with respect to their mode of manufacturing food.

·         This path of food consumption is called a Food Chain.

·         Producers (plants, algae) become the feed of the primary consumers or herbivores (Ex.- ants).

·         Carnivores which feed on herbivores are called secondary consumers (E.g. – Frog)

·         Carnivores feed on carnivores are Tertiary consumers (E.g. – snake).

·         Each level of consumption in a food chain is known as Trophic level.

 

v  A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food. Some animals eat plants and some animals eat other animals. For example, a simple food chain links the trees & shrubs, the giraffes (that eat trees & shrubs), and the lions (that eat the giraffes). Each link in this chain is food for the next link. A food chain always starts with plant life and ends with an animal. Each level of consumption in a food chain is known as Trophic level.

v  Plants are called producers because they are able to use light energy from the Sun to produce food from carbon dioxide and water (photosynthesis).

v  Animals cannot make their own food so they must eat plants and/or other animals. They are called consumers. There are three groups of consumers.

 

·         Animals that eat only plants are called herbivores (or primary consumers).

·         Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.

·         Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.

·         Carnivores that eat carnivores are called tertiary consumers.

·         Animals and people who eat both animals and plants are called omnivores.

·         Then there are decomposers (bacteria and fungi) which feed on decaying matter.

These decomposers speed up the decaying process that releases mineral salts back into the food chain for absorption by plants as nutrients.

Food Web

Food web is an important conceptual tool for illustrating the feeding relationships among species within a community, revealing species interactions and community structure, and understanding the dynamics of energy transfer in an ecosystem.

Food web is an important ecological concept. Basically, food web represents feeding relationships within a community (Smith and Smith 2009). It also implies the transfer of food energy from its source in plants through herbivores to carnivores (Krebs 2009). Normally, food webs consist of a number of food chains meshed together. Each food chain is a descriptive diagram including a series of arrows, each pointing from one species to another, representing the flow of food energy from one feeding group of organisms to another.

There are two types of food chains: the grazing food chain, beginning with autotrophs, and the detrital food chain, beginning with dead organic matter (Smith & Smith 2009). In a grazing food chain, energy and nutrients move from plants to the herbivores consuming them, and to the carnivores or omnivores preying upon the herbivores. In a detrital food chain, dead organic matter of plants and animals is broken down by decomposers, e.g., bacteria and fungi, and moves to detritivores and then carnivores.

Food web offers an important tool for investigating the ecological interactions that define energy flows and predator-prey relationship. For e.g. a simplified food web in a desert ecosystem

In this food web, grasshoppers feed on plants; scorpions prey on grasshoppers; kit foxes prey on scorpions. While the food web here is a simple one, most feed webs are complex and involve many species with both strong and weak interactions among them.

For example, the predators of a scorpion in a desert ecosystem might be a golden eagle, an owl, a roadrunner, or a fox.

·         It is a network of food chains which becomes inter connected at various trophic levels.

·         Food webs are never in a straight line; unlike food chains.

·         Greater the number of alternative pathways, the more stable is the community.

·         They help in checking over population of highly fecundive species of plants and animals.

Ecological Pyramid

Ecological Pyramid is a diagram that shows the relative amounts of energy or matter, or numbers of organisms within each trophic level in a food chain or food web. Ecological pyramids are graphical representations of the trophic structure of ecosystems. Ecological pyramids are organized with the productivity of plants on the bottom, that of herbivores above the plants, and carnivores above the herbivores.

If the organisms in a food chain are arranged according to trophic levels, they form a pyramid, with a broad base representing the primary producers and usually only a few individuals in the highest part of the pyramid. In other words, an ecological pyramid is a way of describing the distribution of energy, biomass, or individuals among the different levels of ecosystem structure.

Types of Ecosystem

FOREST ECOSYSTEM

·         A forest ecosystem is a natural woodland unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms (biotic components) in that area, functioning together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic components) factors of the environment.

·    From the climatic conditions to the members and relationships in the food chain, the forest ecosystem is dependent on the major resources available.

·     In a Forest Ecosystem, from the smallest gnat to the largest predator, the relationship between the food chain is vital to the balance of the ecosystem.

·    The forest ecosystem is balanced by the resources available. The number of trees, fungi, grass or flowers will be, maintained by the number of animals or insects using them for their lifestyle or food sources.

·   If the number of predators in the forest ecosystem should alter, then the food chain would be unbalanced right down to the fundamental level.

·       Even a slight alteration in the forest ecosystem, due to floods or drought or human intervention, can lead to the destruction of the forest ecosystem itself.

·    Types of forest ecosystem include; Tropical Rainforest system, Tropical Deciduous forest system, Temperature Broad Leaf forest system and Temperature Coniferous system.

·   Abiotic components include basic organic and inorganic compounds present in the soil and atmosphere. E.g. – temperature, rainfall etc.

·         Biotic components are Producers, consumers – primary, secondary, tertiary.

·      The living, reproducing, hunting and dying of the plants and animals, all effect the way the forest ecosystem achieves balance.

·    Any variation to the numbers of creatures within the forest ecosystem could change the fragile balance drastically.

·        Functions of a forest ecosystem are based on the differentiated needs of the human population.

·        Also human welfare benefits from the diverse environmental effects of forests.

·    The forest ecosystem helps in successfully coping up with the obstacles arising from nature, changing environments and socio-economic forces.

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

·         Grass land is a kind of terrestrial ecosystem.

·      A biological community that contains few trees or shrubs, is characterized by mixed herbaceous  (nonwoody) vegetation cover, and is dominated by grasses or grass like plants.

·        Grasslands occur in regions that are too dry for forests but that have sufficient soil water to support  a closed herbaceous plant canopy that is lacking in deserts.

·       Components of a grassland ecosystem include abiotic components like nutrients present in the soil  and aerial environment.

·     Biotic components are producers (grasses); primary consumers feeding directly on grasses (cow, buffalo, sheep etc); secondary consumers which are carnivores feeding on herbivores (jackal, fox etc); tertiary consumers like hawks which feed on secondary consumers and lastly decomposers which degrades the dead organic matter, thus making them available to the producers (fungi like aspergillums).

·     Grasslands are of vital importance for raising livestock for human consumption and for milk and other dairy products.

·        They are also served for the purpose of grazing of the livestock.

DESERT ECOSYSTEM

·         Desert ecosystem exists in area where rainfall is extremely low and evaporation rate is high.

·         While deserts are very foreboding places due to the dry and often hot conditions found there, they   are in fact full of specially adapted plants and animals.

·        The composition of the species of plants and animals found in the desert is typical due to extremes  of temperature and water factors.

·        There are two main types of desert plants: drought evaders and drought resisters.

·        Drought evaders, or ephemerals, only grow and blossom when there is rain.

·        Drought resisters, or xerophytes, have adapted so they can survive long periods with no water.

·        Desert plants are eaten by herbivores, while carnivores eat the herbivores.

·      The food that a desert creature eats not only gives it energy, but it also provides the animal with most of its supply of water.

·         In this way, water is passed from plants to herbivores to carnivores.

·         Producers are shrubs or bushes like Cacti, xerophytic mosses.

·         Consumers are reptiles, insects and animals like camel.

·        Due to poor vegetation, the amount of dead organic matter is very less and hence decomposers are  very few. E.g. – some bacteria and fungi which are thermophilic.

·        Some functions of dessert ecosystem include military use, mining etc.

 

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

·         Ponds / lakes are a good example of a fresh water ecosystem.

·        They contain several types of algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes etc and a mixture of organic and   inorganic compounds.

·     Abiotic components like heat, light, Ph of water, organic compounds like CO2, O2, calcium,     nitrogen etc.

·    Biotic components include producers like algae, flagellates; consumers like primary consumers  (zooplanktons), secondary consumers like insects and fish and tertiary consumers like large fish which feed on small fish.

·        Decomposers include several bacteria and fungi.

·        Marine ecosystem covers approximately 71% of the earth’s surface.

·     They are classified into several zones like oceanic (relatively shallow part of ocean), profundal   (deep water), benthic (bottom substrates) and intertidal (area between high tide and low tide).

·     Biotic components are producers (phytoplankton); primary consumers like molluscus; secondary   consumers like mackerel and tertiary consumers like haddock, cod etc.

·         Decomposers are the microbes which degrade the dead organic matter (bacteria and fungi).

Biodiversity or Biological diversity is the variety of life on Earth and the processes and interaction that sustain it. In other words, the variety of life on Earth, its biological diversity is commonly referred to as biodiversity. The number of species of plants, animals, and microorganisms, the enormous diversity of genes in these species, the different ecosystems on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and coral reefs are all part of a biologically diverse Earth. Appropriate conservation and sustainable development strategies attempt to recognize this as being integral to any approach. Almost all cultures have in some way or form recognized the importance that nature, and its biological diversity has had upon them and the need to maintain it.

Biodiversity means the variety and variability of all living beings. It is said to constitute the biological wealth of the world. Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety of life on Earth and the processes and the interaction that sustains it.

Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have an important role to play. Our food and energy security strongly depend on biodiversity and so does our vulnerability to natural hazards such as fires and flooding. Biodiversity loss has negative effects on our health, material wealth and it largely limits our freedom of choice.

For example, a larger number of plant species means a greater variety of crops; greater species diversity ensures natural sustainability for all life forms; and healthy ecosystems can better withstand and recover from a variety of disasters.

Thus a synchronized blend of biodiversity is essential for the sustainability of the mankind and nature. There are namely three types of Biodiversities; ecosystem diversity, genetic diversity and species diversity.

 

Genetic, Species and Ecosystem diversity

Genetic Diversity: genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within the species.

Species Diversity: means variety of species within a region.

Ecosystem Biodiversity: refers to the variety of ecosystems in a particular region or zone.

Bio-geographical Classification of India

India has ten different bio-geographical zones. They are as follows:

^·          The Trans-Himalayan Ladakh Mountains.

 

^·          The Himalayan region – north-west, west, central and eastern.

 

^·          The Desert zone – Thar, Kutch and Ladakh

 

^·          Semi-Arid; Central India , Gujrat – Rajawara

 

^·          Western Ghats – Malabar coast

 

^·         Deccan Penninsula – cental highland, chota nagpur, eastern highland, central plateau, deccan south.

  

^·          Gangetic Plains – upper and lower gangetic plains.

 

^·          North-Eastern India – Bramhaputra Valley,North-East hills.

 

^·          Islands – Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep.

^·          Coast – West and East.

 

Value of Bio Diversity

·         Biodiversity plays an important role in our existence.

·       The vast array of species on Earth provides human beings with food, fiber, medicine and many     other products.

·      It also provides “natural services” for which there is no substitute, Eg – helps to regulate global   climate by absorbing carbon di-oxide.

·      Soil enrichment through the decomposition of dead animals and plants and waste breakdown by   organisms such as insects and worms.

·        Bio diversity is important to the Global Economy as modern agriculture, new genetic stock, nature   tourism are all a part of Biodiversity.

·     Bio diversity is essential for ensuring food security as most of the important crops like wheat,   soybean depend on new genetic material from the wild to remain productive and healthy.

·    Bio diversity safeguards human health as an estimated number of roughly 119 pure chemical  substances extracted from 90 species of higher plants are used in pharmaceuticals around the world.

·        Bio diversity provides recreational opportunities and aesthetic values.

·        Social Value: Many of the plants like Tulsi, Lotus, Peepal etc are considered holy and sacred.

India as a Mega-Diversity Nation

India has a very rich diversity of wild plants and animals, and is considered to be one of the mega-diversity countries. Its share of the global biodiversity is about 8.6% of wild plant animal species respectively. Estimates for the number of micro-organism species are not available. Parallel to this enormous diversity in domesticated animal such as buffalo, goat, sheep, pig, poultry, horse, ponies, camels, and yak. A great variety also exists among our crops. For example, Indian farmers probably grew over 30,000 varieties of rice aloe.

India is one of the largest countries in the world, with an equally large population. There is much diversity in the geographical features; the towering Himalayas, the extensive river plains of north, Thar Desert in the West, Deccan plateau in the central and south, coastal plains in the east and west and the numerous islands.

Both plant and animal species are under threat of extinction primarily due to modification, degradation and loss of their habitats, causes by various developmental projects like industries, urban housing complexes, rail, road, and other communication networks, over exploitation, pollution and global warming. Estimates show that about 50 species are being drawn to extinction every day, and at this rate about 25% of present day biodiversity is likely to become extinct during the next 20-30 years if appropriate are not taken for its conservation. It is therefore, the prime responsibility of all scientists and technocrats to ensure that developmental activities promoted by them cause no/ minimal loss to biodiversity of an area.

 

Biodiversity on global, nation and local levels

Biodiversity on Global level

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is an international legally binding treaty was opened for signature at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992. The Convention attempts to establish a link between natural resources and human activities by:

1.      conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity)

2.      sustainable use of its components; and

3.      fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources

In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable development.

Biodiversity on National Level

The conservation of each country's biological diversity can be achieved in various ways. The primary means of conservation focuses on conserving genes, species, and ecosystems in their natural surroundings. Promoting the sustainable use of biodiversity will be of growing importance for maintaining biodiversity in the years and decades to come. Promoting activities is to ensure that everyone benefits from such goods and services in an equitable way.

The Convention on Biological Diversity, as an international treaty, identifies a common problem, sets overall goals and policies and general obligations, and organizes technical and financial cooperation. However, the responsibility for achieving its goals rests largely with the countries themselves.

Private companies, landowners, fishermen, and farmers take most of the actions that affect biodiversity. Governments need to provide the critical role of leadership, particularly by setting rules that guide the use of natural resources, and by protecting biodiversity where they have direct control over the land and water. Under the Convention, governments undertake to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity. They are required to develop national biodiversity strategies and action plans, and to integrate these into broader national plans for environment and development. This is particularly important for such sectors as forestry, agriculture, fisheries, energy, transportation and urban planning. Other treaty commitments include:

• Identifying and monitoring the important components of biological diversity that needs to be conserved and used sustainably.
• Establishing protected areas to conserve biological diversity while promoting environmentally sound development around these areas.
• Rehabilitating and restoring degraded ecosystems and promoting the recovery of threatened species in collaboration with local residents.
• Respecting, preserving and maintaining traditional knowledge of the sustainable use of biological diversity with the involvement of indigenous peoples and local communities.
• Preventing the introduction of, controlling, and eradicating alien species that could threaten ecosystems, habitats or species.
• Controlling the risks posed by organisms modified by biotechnology.
• Promoting public participation, particularly when it comes to assessing the environmental impacts of development projects that threaten biological diversity.
• Educating people and raising awareness about the importance of biological diversity and the need to conserve it.
• Reporting on how each country is meeting its biodiversity goals.

Biodiversity at Local Level

On the Local level, or the grass root level incorporation of conservation programmes, incentives from outside like income generating opportunities, "technical assistance and training, information and consciousness-raising related to conservation, the provision of equipment, and technical and scientific advice and assistance should be promoted.

Hot-spots of Biodiversity

• A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeography region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans.
• To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot a region must meet two strict criteria: it must contain at 1,500 species of endemic plants and must have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.
• Around the world, at least 25 areas qualify under this definition, with nine others possible candidates.
• These sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species, with a very high share of endemic species.
• Several international organizations are working in many ways to conserve biodiversity hotspots.
• Some of them are Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), Global Environment Facility etc.
• India has some of the world’s most biodiverse regions.
• It hosts three biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, the Eastern Himalayas, and the hilly ranges that straddle the India-Myanmar border.
• These hotspots have numerous endemic species.

Threats to Biodiversity (Major issues of Biodiversity)

In the modern era, due to human actions, species and ecosystems are threatened with destruction to an extent rarely seen in earth history. Probably only during the handful of mass extinction events have so many species been threatened, in so short a time.

The value of biodiversity and the resulting ecosystem services are poorly understood by a lot of people. There has been a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the earth's biodiversity as a result of this.

Following are some of the causes which are classified under “Threats to Biodiversity”:

Habitat Loss: is the process in which natural habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the species present. In this process, the organisms which previously used the site are displaced or destroyed, reducing biodiversity. Habitat destruction by human activity mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industry production and urbanization. Some of the important causes of habitat destruction include mining, urbanization, and agriculture. Habitat loss, alteration and fragmentation directly affect the species that rely on the habitat that is being changed.

Poaching of Wildlife: Poaching has been a significant cause of the extinction of hundreds of species and the endangerment of many more. Commercial hunting, both legal and illegal (poaching) is the principal threat. The pet and decorative plant trade falls within this commercial hunting category, and includes a mix of legal and illegal activities.

Man-Wildlife Conflict: The conflict between man and wildlife started with the evolution of man, but intensity increased due to the activities of modern man. Due to the lack of stable food and disruption of movement, wild animals came out of forest area and attack the agricultural field and humans and in turn got killed by the humans.

Endangered and Endemic Species of India

• According to the International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the species that considered in imminent danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely, if factors causing their decline continue to operate.
• Out of about 47,000 species of plants in our country, 7000 are endemic.
• India contains 172 species of animals considered globally threatened by IUCN or 2.9% of the world’s total number of threatened species.
• These include 53 species of mammals, 69 birds, 23 reptiles and 3 amphibians
• As many as 3,000- 4,000 higher plants may be under high degree of threat in India
• Thus Indian subcontinent has about 62% endemic flora, restricted mainly to Himalayas, khasi Hills & Western Ghats.
• Sapria Himalayan, etc. are some endemic flora of our country.
• A large number out of a total of 81,000 species of animals in our country is endemic. About 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats.
• Golden monkey, Niligiri, Black Necked Crane, Indian Pea Fowl, , Indian Salamandar etc. are some examples of endemic animal species of India.

^·    Conservation of Biodiversity

    The convention on Biological Diversity held in June, 1992 stressed the need of the conservation of Biodiversity for sustainable development and perpetuation of human beings on earth. Conservation is defined as the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to the present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of the future generations. The two basic approaches to wildlife conservation in protected habitats are:

In- situ conservation:

·     It simply means conservation of species in its natural ecosystem or even in manmade ecosystems.

·      This strategy emphasizes protection of total ecosystem through a network of “protected area”.

·      Protected Areas: an area of land and/or sea specially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and managed through legal effective means.

·    There are different categories of protected areas which are managed with different objectives. These include; Biosphere reserves, National parks, Wild Life Sanctuaries etc.

·      At present we have 11 major biosphere reserves, 80 National parks, 420 wildlife sanctuaries in our country covering 4% of the geographic area.

·        The JIM CORBETT National Park was 1^st national park established in India.

Ex- situ conservation:

• It is defined as the conservation of component of biological diversity (sample of genetic diversity, particularly of endangered species) outside their natural habitats.
• It involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and animal species under partially or wholly controlled conditions. E.g. Zoos, Botanical Gardens, Aquaria, Nurseries etc.
• There are more than 1500 Botanical gardens in the world containing more than 80,000 species.
• There are more than 800 zoos around the world with about 3,000 endangered species of mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians.

Part 2: Concept of sustainability and international efforts for environmental protection

(Topics Covered: Concept of Sustainable Development, Emergence of Environmental Issues. International Protocols, WTO, Kyoto Protocol, International Agreement on Environmental Management)

Unsustainable development is the sort of development that does not consider future needs and the protection of the environment (or of social needs) on its plans. Many acts of unsustainable development, in which we all have participated, are driven by good intentions and a lack of understanding of the possible long term consequences.

Whereas, Sustainable development is defined as development that meets "the present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". That means, that developmental projects are planned to meet the long term needs of the population and not only those of the present.

From Unsustainable to Sustainable development

·        It is a known fact that man is strongly related to the environment and is solely dependent on the nature.

·         But over the few years, overexploitation of natural resources has disturbed the environment.

·      The success of environmentally sound development depends upon proper understanding of social needs; opportunities and environmental characteristics.

·   Sustainable development is a pattern of resources that aims to meet the human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but in indefinite future.

·        Sustainable development tries to create a bond between natural system and social challenges facing humanity.

·      Environmental sustainability is the process of making sure that current processes of interaction with the environment are pursued with the idea of keeping the environment as pristine as possible.

·       An “unsustainable situation” occurs when natural capital (the sum of total of nature’s resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished.

·      Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature’s resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally.

 

Following are some steps which should be undertaken to maintain environmental sustainability

·       Environmental education is necessary to improve understanding among general public about the environment.

·   Awareness must be given to understand the relationship between human beings and their environment. Understanding basic ecological concept and current environmental issues will help in solving environmental problems.

·         Make the people understand that environmental protection and resource conservation are the main advantages to lead a better life.

 

Emergence of Environmental Issues

Urban problems related to energy

·         Energy needs are typically very high in urban areas.

·         The first and foremost issue is that the ability to produce energy has not kept up with the growing requirements of the urban areas.

·         This has led to mass power black-outs, at times, with the express purpose of raising energy prices.

·       In the modern housing, the use of brick, concrete, glass etc makes the building hot and requires large number of fans or air conditioning units.

·         High rise buildings consume huge amounts of electricity to operate lifts illumination etc.

·         Urbanization has also has also led to a substantial increase vehicular emissions.

·         Alternative energy sources should be developed to save mankind from the current crisis.

 

 Water Conservation, Rain Water Harvesting, Watershed Management

·        Over the years rising populations, growing industrialization, and expanding agriculture have pushed up the demand for water.

·         Clean, usable water has become insufficient these days.

·         The solution lies in conserving water, water recycling and harvesting of rain water more efficiently.

·          Efforts have been made to collect water by building dams and reservoirs and digging wells; some countries have also tried to recycle and desalinate (remove salts) water.

·         Water conservation has become the need of the day.

·         Water conservation can be defined as reducing the usage of water and recycling of waste water for different purposes such as cleaning, manufacturing, and agricultural irrigation.

·         In urban areas, the construction of houses, footpaths and roads has left little exposed earth for water to soak in.

·         In parts of the rural areas of India, floodwater quickly flows to the rivers, which then dry up soon after the rains stop.

·         If this water can be held back, it can seep into the ground and recharge the groundwater supply.

·         This method of water conservation is gaining momentum rapidly.

·         Rainwater harvesting essentially means collecting rainwater on the roofs of building and storing it underground for later use.

·         This recharging not only arrests ground water depletion, but also raises the declining water table and helps augment water supply.

·         Rainwater harvesting and artificial recharging are becoming very important issues.

·         It is essential to stop the decline in groundwater levels, arrest sea-water ingress, i.e. prevent sea-water from moving landward, and conserve surface water run-off during the rainy season.

·         Rainwater harvesting has some advantages like

ü  Increases water availability.

ü  Checks the declining water table.

ü  Is environmentally friendly

ü  Improves the quality of groundwater through the dilution of fluoride, nitrate, and salinity.

ü  Prevents soil erosion and flooding especially in urban areas.

·      Watershed can be defined as an extent or area of land where water from rain and melting snow or ice drains downhill into a body of water, such as a river, lake, reservoir, or ocean.

·       It acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by the basin and channeling it into a waterway.

·         It is also termed as “catchment area”.

 

Environmental Ethics – Issues and possible solutions

·         Environmental ethics is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment.

·         It assumes that humans have certain responsibilities to the natural world, and it seeks to help people and their leaders become aware of them and to act responsibly when they do things that impact the natural world.

·         People need to know that besides actual laws, there are some basic, common ethics or principles of what is right and what is wrong that everyone agrees upon and usually follows or lives by.

·         Environmental ethics is concerned with the morality (right and wrong) of human actions as they affect the environment or the natural world we live in.

·         Environmental ethics is concerned with the issue of responsible personal conduct with respect to natural landscapes, resources, species, and non-human organisms.

·         The solution lies in changing the attitude and the perspective of the people.

·         NGO’s, government institutions are striving hard to educate the masses and make them understand the ever lasting relationship between man and nature.

Climate Change, global warming, acid rains, ozone layer depletion, nuclear accidents and holocaust

Ø  Climate Change and Global Warming  

ü  Human activities involving industrialization and population growth has greatly increased the demand of energy.

ü  This has resulted in massive increase in the consumption of fossil fuels.

ü  Burning of fossil fuels results in CO2 emissions on a larger scale.

ü  Yet another reason for the increase of CO2 is the growing deforestation.

ü  This is the main reason behind Global Warming.

ü   Global warming and climate change refer to an increase in average global temperatures.

ü  Natural events and human activities are believed to be contributing to an increase in average global temperatures.

ü  The erratic climatic changes and persistent problem of global warming has lead to several environmental, economic and social problems.

ü  Environmental problems such as dangerously increasing levels of sea level, scarcity of rainfall, reduction in fresh water availability have been observed.

ü  If the global warming continues to be on the rise, it will cause reduction in the production of crops, thus affecting the agricultural revenues adversely.

ü  Majority of the people are for whom climate change will mean hunger, food insecurity, and destruction of livelihoods, thus threatening the social security of the people. 

 

Ø  Acid Rains

ü  Certain industries, as well as emissions from vehicles give rise to increase of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the air.

ü  These emissions change into sulphates and nitrates,

ü  under the influence of sunlight and moisture, and get converted into sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which come down as acid rain.

ü  The major source of emissions of nitrogen oxides into the air, is from vehicles and other places where fossil fuels are burned.

ü  Forest fires, often caused by man, either deliberately or accidentally, are another source of pollution.

ü  Acid rains dissolves and washes away the nutrients in the soil, thus adversely affecting the crops.

ü  They also affect wetlands and rivers; aquatic life disrupts food chains and destroys the ecosystem.

ü   Acid rains get into the food we eat, the air we breathe and thus causes serious health problems.

ü  Acid rains have also caused considerable damage to heritage monuments like Taj Mahal in Agra.

ü  To this end environmental regulations have been enacted to limit the quantity of emissions released in the atmosphere.

ü  A reduction in use of vehicles will reduce the amount of emission caused by our vehicles.

ü  Reduce use of electric power can also help in reduction process.

ü  Increasing awareness is one way of ensuring that things are done to solve this global problem.

Ø  Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer protects the Earth from the ultraviolet rays sent down by the sun.  If the ozone layer is depleted by human action, the effects on the planet could be catastrophic.

Causes – The production and emission of CFCs, chlorofluorocarbons, is by far the leading cause. CFCs are used in industry in a variety of ways and have been amazingly useful in many products. CFCs came to be used in refrigerators, home insulation, plastic foam, and throwaway food containers.

Effects –

ü  Every time a small amount of the ozone layer is lost, more ultraviolet light from the sun can reach the Earth directly.

ü  UV rays release is one of the most harmful consequences of ozone depletion because it can cause skin cancer.

ü  Ozone layer will increase rates of malaria and other infectious diseases and eye related ailments like cataract.

ü  The environment will also be negatively affected by ozone depletion.  The life cycles of plants will change, disrupting the food chain.

ü  Effects on animals will also be severe, and are very difficult to foresee.

ü  Other ecosystems such as forests and deserts will also be harmed.

ü  The planet's climate could also be affected by depletion of the ozone layer.

ü   Wind patterns could change, resulting in climatic changes throughout the world.

Solution –

ü  Several laws and regulations limiting the usage of CFC’s in the industries have been implemented.

ü  Encourage growth of plants that produce oxygen, discourage deforestation.

ü  Decrease / control releases of high temperature steam / moisture to the atmosphere.

ü  Eliminate production and release of known ozone depleting chemicals (such as CFCs and HCFCs) where remotely possible. Subsidize production of safer alternatives where possible.

ü  Try to use products which are labeled "Ozone-Friendly"

ü  Ensure technicians repairing your refrigerator or air conditioner recover and recycle the old CFCs so they are not released into the atmosphere.

ü  Vehicle air conditioning units should regularly be checked for leaks.

ü  Ask about converting your car to a substitute refrigerant if the a/c system needs major repair

ü  Help start a refrigerant recovery and recycling program in your area if none already exists.

ü  Replace halon fire extinguishers with alternatives (e.g. carbon dioxide or foam).

ü  Suggest school activities to increase awareness of the problem and to initiate local action.

 

Ø  Nuclear Accidents and Holocaust

ü  Nuclear energy is a clean and cheaper substitute to energy from fossil fuels.

ü  Though greatly beneficial to mankind, this energy source has many problems.

ü  Nuclear accidents can happen at any stage of the nuclear fuel cycle.

ü  Such accidents are viewed more seriously because their effects are more drastic.

ü  When accidents happen at nuclear power plants, massive radioactivity is released.

ü  This can cause huge losses of human life and long term illnesses like cancer and tumors.

ü  Three Mile Island (USA, 1979) and Chernobyl (USSR, 1986) are the two major nuclear accidents recorded in the World History.

ü  Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Japan, 1945) are the prominent examples of nuclear weapons used in war cause holocaust which caused the death of over 1,00,000 people and left long ranging chromosomal defects in the people which can be observed till date.

 

Part 3- International Protocols

•   Environmental pollution has no political boundaries. The air polluted in one region can be transmitted to thousands of miles without the manmade barriers. Thus, environmental pollution, global warming, climate change and other related issues have been given more weight at international forums.

 

A convention is a meeting or gathering to formulate or deliberate on a generally accepted principle, framework in which the parties decide the basic guidelines. For example: Rio Convention.

 

A protocol contains specific aims or legal obligations agreed upon by the members who gather in a convention or conference. Usually, when a major provision is to be incorporated on regulations of the convention, a protocol is called among the countries, who are signatory of the original convention when it was signed and approved.

 

United Nations

The United Nations is involved in multilateral environmental agreements or MEAs worldwide on a number of issues, including biological diversity, chemicals and waste, and climate and the atmosphere. One example would be the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which was brought together to address the hazardous effects of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the atmosphere. The United Nations Information Portal (InforMEA) brings together MEAs by harvesting COP decisions and resolutions, news, events, MEA membership, national focal points, national reports and implementation plans from MEA secretariats and organizes this information around a set of agreed terms, for the benefit of Parties and the environment community at large

 World Trade Organization (WTO)

The World Trade Organization has been involved in MEA negotiations due to the agreements' trade implications. The organization has trade and environmental policies which promote the protection and preservation of the environment. Its objective is to reduce trade barriers and coordinate trade-related measures with environmental policies. Since MEAs protect and preserve the environment, they may help ease restrictions on trade. The WTO’s principles are based on non-discrimination, free trade through reduction of trade barriers and fair competition, and MEAs have been rejected for not being in accordance with the organization's principles. The WTO is working with and implementing over 350 MEAs worldwide. Most of the agreements involve five core countries which are committed to environmental improvement and free trade. WTO members are legally bound to respect negotiated reductions of barriers to trade. However, conflict has arisen due to trade restriction.

Earth Summit

•      The Brundtland Report of 1987 sent an alert to the world about the urgency of making progress towards sustainable economic development without harming the already sick environment and without depleting the vanishing natural resources.

•      Five years later, the progress on enunciated sustainable development was sought by the UN and United Nations Conference on Environment & Development. Held in June 1992 at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, the Rio Earth Summit as it became popularly known, was the largest environmental conference ever held, attracting over 30,000 people including more than 100 heads of state.

•      The Rio Conference was held primarily with an objective towards building upon the hopes and achievements of the Brundtland Report with a view to responding to mounting global environmental problems and to agree on major treaties on biodiversity, climate change, and forest management.

•      The major outcome of the Earth Summit was Agenda 21. Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally, nationally, and locally by organizations of the United Nations System, Governments, and Major Groups in every area that humans impact on the environment.

•      Besides, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and the Statement of Principles for the Sustainable Management of Forests were adopted.

•  The Earth Summit influenced all subsequent UN conferences, which have examined the relationship between human rights, population, social development, women and human settlements — and the need for environmentally sustainable development.

 

International Protocols on Climate Change

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)
• Kyoto Protocol (1997)
• Paris Agreement (2016)

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)

•      The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC) is an international environmental treaty created at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from June 3 to 14, 1992.

•      The United Nations Climate Change Conferences are annual events held in the framework of UNFCCC. The conferences are held to assess the progress made in efforts to deal with climate change.

•      These conferences serve as the formal meeting of the UNFCCC Parties and are popularly called Conference of Parties (COP). Palestine became the 197th party to UNFCCC in 2016.

•      The first UN Climate Change Conference or Conference of Parties (COP 1) was held in 1995 in Berlin.

 

Kyoto Protocol

•   In order to reduce the growing concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the Earth’s atmosphere, the UNFCCC put in place the first ever agreement between nations to mandate country-by-country reduction in GHGs. This historic Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and hence, got the name of Kyoto Protocol.

 

•    The Kyoto Protocol officially came into force in 2005, after being formally ratified by the required number of nations. Participating nations or the signatories have agreed to meet certain greenhouse gas emission targets, as well as submit to external review and enforcement of these commitments by the UN-based bodies.

 

•     The parties or the signatory countries committed to reduce the GHGs emission, based on the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) man-made CO2 emissions have caused it.

 

•      Under Kyoto, industrialized nations pledged to cut their yearly emissions of carbon, as measured in six greenhouse gases, by varying amounts, averaging 5.2%, by 2012 as compared to 1990.

 

•      It excluded developing countries such as China and India, which have since become the world's largest and fourth largest polluters according to the International Energy Agency, as well as second-placed United States which refused to ratify the deal.

 

•      A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol, in which 37 countries have binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and its 28 member states), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine.

 

Initiatives like Kyoto Protocol has been necessitated as the UN has set a target of limiting global warming to 2.0 degrees Celsius (3.6 Fahrenheit) from pre-industrial levels — a level at which scientists say the planet may be spared the worst impacts of climate change.

 

International Protocol on Ozone layer

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)

•   The Montreal Protocol is related to the substance that depletes the ozone layer of the atmosphere. This International Treaty, is designed to protect the ozone layer, by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The Treaty was opened for signature on 16 September, 1987 and came into force on 1 January, 1989.

•      Its first meeting was held at Helsinki in May, 1989. Since then, it has undergone several revisions in London (1990), Nairobi (1991), Copenhagen (1992), Bangkok (1993), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997, Beijing (1999), and Kigali (2016).

•      It was agreed that if this international agreement is strictly adhered to, the ozone layer would recover by 2005. At first, the aim was to remove harmful chemicals such as CFCs by 50 percent by 1998. The target was further revised so as to curtail the production of these chemical at the earliest.

•      The Montreal Protocol has been ratified by 196 countries. It is the first international treaty to achieve complete ratification by member countries. In Kigali, Rwanda in 2016, the Parties (Members) agreed to an international phase down of 85 percent of Hydroflurocarbons (HFCs)

•      Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (Kigali amendment, 2016), not yet in force

International Agreement on Environmental Management

Paris Agreement 

•      The Paris Agreement or Paris Climate Agreement is a UN sponsored pact to bring the world countries together in the fight against climate change.

•      Countries that sign on to be a part of the pact agreed to limit the century’s global average temperature increase to no more than 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit) above the levels from the years 1850-1900 (the pre-industrial era) and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

•      Participating countries made the Paris Pact on 12 December, 2015 to adopt green energy sources, cut down on greenhouse gas emission, and limit the rise of global temperature.

•      Every country has an individual plan or ‘Nationally Determined Contributions’ to tackle greenhouse gas emission.

•      The agreement went into effect on Nov. 4, 2016; 30 days after at least 55 countries representing at least 55 percent of the world’s global emissions ratified it on Oct. 5, 2016. As of May 2017, of the 196 negotiating countries that signed the agreement, 147 parties have ratified it.

International Agreements on Marine, Water and Environmental Protection

• Agreement Between Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden concerning Cooperation in Taking Measures against Pollution of the Sea by Oil or other Harmful Substances (1993, supersedes the 1971 agreement)
• Agreement on the Implementation of a European Project on Pollution on the Topic "Sewage Sludge Processing" (1973)
• Agreement with NEFCO on the Establishment of the Baltic Sea Region Testing Ground Facility (2003)
• Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response in the Arctic (2016)

International Agreement on Protection of Biological Diversity

• Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas (ASCOBANS, 1992)
• Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats (EUROBATS, 1991)
• Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Water birds (AEWA, 1996)